Organization when learning

Learning processes can be structured in various steps (cf. fig. 21); all of these steps require a different mental state. There are those requiring vision and others accounting for imagination or elaboration. The most important thing is to realize that there are indeed such sub-processes before trying to do everything at the same time (e.g. activating previous knowledge and working through new material simultaneously). You could also try and separate single learning steps deliberately by changing the location (e.g. structuring at your desk, then memorizing on the couch or while taking a few steps).

Fig. 21: Steps of learning processes. Source: Diagram by author based on Steiner (2000: 171).

There should be enough time for the different steps of one's learning process.

Determining objectives and purposes

Expectations when taking an exam can vary; there are those just trying to pass and others only wanting to get top marks. It is best to clearly determine your objectives before preparing for an exam in order to set a time frame, either deliberately or compulsorily (Steiner 2000: 99).

However, it is also important to define the purpose of each single learning session. If you make resolutions to concretize all expectations it will be easier to focus on the learning content since your energy can then be better concentrated. Aims can vary to a great extent. You can decide to tackle a difficult chapter, for example, relate a single content to another, get an overview of an entire script, or make a short summary of the most important facts for someone outside the subject area.

The time needed for learning depends on the objectives set.

Gathering information, activating previous knowledge, getting started

You should learn how to use catalogs, microfiches, databases, inter-library loans, DP, statistics, and word processing applications as soon as possible. We recommend collecting all necessary information, lecture notes, etc. before preparing for your exam. It is cumbersome when trying to learn and search for literature and information at the same time. Additionally, it is necessary to have all relevant information at hand before getting a general idea of the entire learning matter.

When beginning to learn, all the things needed should be ready at hand.

This is the right time to activate your previous knowledge and perhaps search for additional information in order to simplify touching on a new subject. When activating previous knowledge, it is necessary to have a vision as well as the ability to quickly get a general idea of the learning matter as regards content and complexity. It is also important to get a good start. It is worth taking your time when dealing with a new topic, even if you get the feeling of not learning anything at all. A good first impression is key when trying to pique your curiosity and arouse interest, for example, by finding an anecdote, a biography, an analogy, a practical example, or a relation to your own experience. In addition, a good start can help to establish connections and references that can be useful when memorizing the matter at a later time. Learning matter should be accessed from various angles, interpreted by means of different research perspectives, or connected to your sensory perception in order to better keep it in mind. References to previous knowledge are therefore essential for learning in a successful way.

Elaborating, developing

Developing learning content is similar to discovering new worlds. This is a very challenging step since new information and contents have to be understood before being able to relate them to your previous knowledge. The most important thing at this stage is to find analogies and examples (of your personal choice) in order to comprehend an abstract body of knowledge (Steiner 2000: 184). A sketch or a draft can help to illustrate complicated correlations as well as soliloquizing or discussing learning contents with peers. Generally, learning content that has already been discussed and paraphrased will be easier to memorize and reproduce.

You realize if contents have been understood when looking at examples of your own choice.

Economizing

There is often not enough time to deal with all areas to the same degree. It is therefore necessary to spend your time wisely as regards different learning phases. At the beginning, you have to decide what has to be learned and what can be neglected.

When elaborating and developing knowledge, it is essential to determine which learning content or chapter can just be skimmed through and which one has to be dealt with in more detail. At this stage it is very important to prioritize and focus on basics in order not to get lost in details. Knowledge learned superficially will hardly be memorized, especially when not being used or repeated at a later date. In such cases it is better to limit yourself to just a short overview. In-depth studies and focusing make sense when trying to find important relations as well as one's main questions (Steiner 2000: 197).

Most of the time economizing - concentrating on the essential - is mandatory.

Structuring

By structuring content (cf. «Use of literature»), you categorize, arrange hierarchies, relate fragments to an overall picture, and select appropriate keywords. Learning content can then be better memorized and retrieved at a later date. Knowledge is being condensed. Accordingly, it will require less memory space and is therefore easier to manage as compared to unstructured knowledge (Steiner 2000: 195).

Before beginning to learn, we recommend saving one or two days for mentally structuring your content and relating single subjects to each other. Most of the time, there are useful references or analogies, provided that they are arranged in a logical way. In order to structure texts and learning contents, there are various devices and techniques such as mind maps, sketches, summaries, structural analyses, and highlighting.

Structuring means keeping track of your learning content.

Mind maps

Mind Maps create a central image (cf. fig. 22). Associations and subordinated topics branch out to form other branches of inferior topics and terms (Buzan 1996: 59). A mind map greatly differs from standard notes or lists. When taking notes, keywords are often concealed because they appear in different contexts. Experts argue about the purpose of mind maps generated by a computer. They claim that structures are better memorized if written by hand. Important information can get lost. Notes are often not very appealing to the eye; memorizing them will be difficult since the associative ability is not supported. Your creativity is equally not stimulated; it is therefore difficult to concentrate and be motivated enough to learn (Buzan 1996: 49).

Fig. 22: Example of a mind map. Source: Diagram by author.

A mind map's hierarchies and categories increase your capacity for remembering since single words are not just listed randomly and regardless of their significance (Buzan 1996: 84).

We recommend highlighting mind maps additionally with colors (each branch with a different one), images, or symbols. It is also important to pay attention to clarity and distinctness (e.g. only one keyword per line, central lines thicker than others, etc.). Mind maps are there to support and structure associations; busy, chaotic images should therefore be avoided (Buzan 1996: 59). In case a mind map serves as basis for a speech, it is possible to add a numerical classification where branches are numbered and ordered chronologically.

Mind maps can also be used when taking notes during a lecture or creating a manuscript for a presentation.

Even if layout tips can be helpful at the beginning, it is not advisable to create mind maps in agreement with strict rules; it is better to develop your own personal style. Creating a mind map is done step by step and already associated with a learning effect.

When dealing with a text, you should first try and get a general idea of it: content, headings, results, and conclusions. Then you can determine the central image as well as the main branches of your mind map. After getting more detailed information and text comprehension, this mind map can be elaborated and finally completed by integrating even difficult contents. It is not a matter of making an entire mind map first before repeating its content. Elaborating a mind map should ideally be an important part of your learning process by structuring a text and supporting your ability of comprehension (Buzan 1996: 144).

Structural analysis while reading

Before dealing with a book's or script's content, we recommend analyzing its structure and outline. Learning per se will then be easier since you will not be confronted with unforeseen tasks. A text's structural analysis can be distinguished by the following levels (Steiner 2000: 166):

• Structure of text: The entire structure of a text will be analyzed, its number of chapters or sections. You searche also for prominent key terms.
• Structure of content: You determine the function of certain text parts to facilitate your orientation within a chapter. You should also pay special attention to introductions, summaries, and conclusions already providing an indication of text contents.
• Content per se: It is easier to deal with a text's content per se if certain conditions (such as structure, frame, and summary) are already known. When working on comprehensive texts we recommend trying to determine and summarize the most important contents in a short period of time (cf. «Concentration»).

Structuring your learning matter clearly makes it easier to learn.

To sum up, it is clear that contents will be retrieved better after structuring your learning matter efficiently. However, a good structure alone is not a guarantee for being able to memorize things easier.

Memorization

Elaborated, reduced, and structured contents will be easier to memorize. However, there will always be learning matters that are difficult to remember, even if repeated over and over again. When dealing with difficult contents such as formulas or abstract data, it can be helpful, even if it will take some time, to use mnemonics and stories to learn something by heart.

It is important to add that forgetting is not always a bad thing. On the contrary, it contributes to the quality of knowledge. Knowledge that is unconnected, out-dated, or no longer applied will be deleted automatically. You will therefore only memorize condensed as well as focused knowledge (Steiner 2000: 216).

Mnemonics help to memorize difficult content.

Repeating

When repeating, you try to memorize condensed content already structured. Knowledge repeated one time only will usually be forgotten more quickly than knowledge repeated over and over again. It is therefore best to repeat things learned the very next day before tackling new contents. Repeating things the very next day will not take much time; the interval between elaborating and repeating can therefore be kept short.

Repeating learning matter helps to memorize it and keep it in mind.

Repeating by means of flashcards

You create a set of flashcards per subject, ordered by weekdays as well as by weeks and months. Learning content worked through today is then put in the section of the following day in order to be repeated again. Content that has been memorized successfully is put in the section of the following week; it will therefore be considered not before that date. Content that hasn't been memorized will be put again in the section of the following day until it can be finally memorized. The following week, this procedure is restarted from the beginning. Content already memorized is put in the section of the following month while unknown content gets into the section of the following day and then into the one of the following week, step by step, until it has reached the section of the following month. Learning contents of a subject will therefore be repeated continuously. Its advantage is that the amount of content that still needs to be repeated will not be too much right before an exam; if time is running short no content will be lost (Steiner 2000: 233). In case there are a lot of different subjects this method is inadvisable since creating and using a lot of flashcard sets simultaneously will be very time-consuming. However, the concept of repeating learning content in short intervals before repeating it in longer ones can also be practiced without flashcards and will therefore always be a good idea.